The Pilgrims of The Canterbury Tales

The Narrator -  The narrator makes it quite clear that he is also a character in his book. Although he is called Chaucer, we should be wary of accepting his words and opinions as Chaucer’s own. In the General Prologue, the narrator presents himself as a gregarious and naïve character. Later on, the Host accuses him of being silent and sullen. Because the narrator writes down his impressions of the pilgrims from memory, whom he does and does not like, and what he chooses and chooses not to remember about the characters, tells us as much about the narrator’s own prejudices as it does about the characters themselves.

The Knight -  The first pilgrim Chaucer describes in the General Prologue, and the teller of the first tale. The Knight represents the ideal of a medieval Christian man-at-arms. He has participated in no less than fifteen of the great crusades of his era. Brave, experienced, and prudent, the narrator greatly admires him.

The Wife of Bath -  Bath is an English town on the Avon River, not the name of this woman’s husband. Though she is a seamstress by occupation, she seems to be a professional wife. She has been married five times and had many other affairs in her youth, making her well practiced in the art of love. She presents herself as someone who loves marriage and sex, but, from what we see of her, she also takes pleasure in rich attire, talking, and arguing. She is deaf in one ear and has a gap between her front teeth, which was considered attractive in Chaucer’s time. She has traveled on pilgrimages to Jerusalem three times and elsewhere in Europe as well.

The Pardoner -  Pardoners granted papal indulgences—reprieves from penance in exchange for charitable donations to the Church. Many pardoners, including this one, collected profits for themselves. In fact, Chaucer’s Pardoner excels in fraud, carrying a bag full of fake relics—for example, he claims to have the veil of the Virgin Mary. The Pardoner has long, greasy, yellow hair and is beardless. These characteristics were associated with shiftiness and gender ambiguity in Chaucer’s time. The Pardoner also a gift for singing and preaching whenever he finds himself inside a church.

The Miller -  Stout and brawny, the Miller has a wart on his nose and a big mouth, both literally and figuratively. He threatens the Host’s notion of propriety when he drunkenly insists on telling the second tale. Indeed, the Miller seems to enjoy overturning all conventions: he ruins the Host’s carefully planned storytelling order; he rips doors off hinges; and he tells a tale that is somewhat blasphemous, ridiculing religious clerks, scholarly clerks, carpenters, and women.

The Prioress -  Described as modest and quiet, this Prioress (a nun who is head of her convent) aspires to have exquisite taste. Her table manners are dainty, she knows French (though not the French of the court), she dresses well, and she is charitable and compassionate.

The Monk -  Most monks of the Middle Ages lived in monasteries according to the Rule of Saint Benedict, which demanded that they devote their lives to “work and prayer.” This Monk cares little for the Rule; his devotion is to hunting and eating. He is large, loud, and well clad in hunting boots and furs.

The Friar -  Roaming priests with no ties to a monastery, friars were a great object of criticism in Chaucer’s time. Always ready to befriend young women or rich men who might need his services, the friar actively administers the sacraments in his town, especially those of marriage and confession. However, Chaucer’s worldly Friar has taken to accepting bribes.

The Summoner -  The Summoner brings persons accused of violating Church law to ecclesiastical court. This Summoner is a lecherous man whose face is scarred by leprosy. He gets drunk frequently, is irritable, and is not particularly qualified for his position. He spouts the few words of Latin he knows in an attempt to sound educated.

The Host -  The leader of the group, the Host is large, loud, and merry, although he possesses a quick temper. He mediates among the pilgrims and facilitates the flow of the tales. His title of “host” may be a pun, suggesting both an innkeeper and the Eucharist, or Holy Host.

The Parson -  The only devout churchman in the company, the Parson lives in poverty, but is rich in holy thoughts and deeds. The pastor of a sizable town, he preaches the Gospel and makes sure to practice what he preaches. He is everything that the Monk, the Friar, and the Pardoner are not.

The Squire -  The Knight’s son and apprentice. The Squire is curly-haired, youthfully handsome, and loves dancing and courting.

The Clerk -  The Clerk is a poor student of philosophy. Having spent his money on books and learning rather than on fine clothes, he is threadbare and wan. He speaks little, but when he does, his words are wise and full of moral virtue.

The Man of Law -  A successful lawyer commissioned by the king. He upholds justice in matters large and small and knows every statute of England’s law by heart.

The Manciple -  A manciple was in charge of getting provisions for a college or court. Despite his lack of education, this Manciple is smarter than the thirty lawyers he feeds.

The Merchant -  The Merchant trades in furs and other cloths, mostly from Flanders. He is part of a powerful and wealthy class in Chaucer’s society.

The Shipman -  Brown-skinned from years of sailing, the Shipman has seen every bay and river in England, and exotic ports in Spain and Carthage as well. He is a bit of a rascal, known for stealing wine while the ship’s captain sleeps.

The Physician -  The Physician is one of the best in his profession, for he knows the cause of every malady and can cure most of them. Though the Physician keeps himself in perfect physical health, the narrator calls into question the Physician’s spiritual health: he rarely consults the Bible and has an unhealthy love of financial gain.

The Franklin -  The word “franklin” means “free man.” In Chaucer’s society, a franklin was neither a vassal serving a lord nor a member of the nobility. This particular franklin is a connoisseur of food and wine, so much so that his table remains laid and ready for food all day.

The Reeve -  A reeve was similar to a steward of a manor, and this reeve performs his job shrewdly—his lord never loses so much as a ram to the other employees, and the vassals under his command are kept in line. However, he steals from his master.

The Plowman -  The Plowman is the Parson’s brother and is equally good-hearted. A member of the peasant class, he pays his tithes to the Church and leads a good Christian life.

The Guildsmen -  Listed together, the five Guildsmen appear as a unit. English guilds were a combination of labor unions and social fraternities: craftsmen of similar occupations joined together to increase their bargaining power, and live communally. All five Guildsmen are clad in the livery of their brotherhood.

The Cook -  The Cook works for the Guildsmen. Chaucer gives little detail about him, although he mentions a crusty sore on the Cook’s leg.

The Yeoman -  The servant who accompanies the Knight and the Squire. The narrator mentions that his dress and weapons suggest he may be a forester.

The Second Nun -  The Second Nun is not described in the General Prologue, but she tells a saint’s life for her tale.

The Nun’s Priest -  Like the Second Nun, the Nun’s Priest is not described in the General Prologue. His story of Chanticleer, however, is well crafted and suggests that he is a witty, self-effacing preacher.

1/27/09

From How to Read Literature Like a Professor

Thomas C. Foster

1.     Every Trip is a Quest (except when it’s not):

a.     A quester

b.     A place to go

c.     A stated reason to go there

d.     Challenges and trials

e.     The real reason to go—always self-knowledge

2.     Nice to Eat With You: Acts of Communion

a.     Whenever people eat or drink together, it’s communion

b.     Not usually religious

c.     An act of sharing and peace

d.     A failed meal carries negative connotations

3.     Nice to Eat You: Acts of Vampires

a.     Literal Vampirism: Nasty old man, attractive but evil, violates a young woman, leaves his mark, takes her innocence

b.     Sexual implications—a trait of 19^th century literature to address sex indirectly

c.     Symbolic Vampirism: selfishness, exploitation, refusal to respect the autonomy of other people, using people to get what we want, placing our desires, particularly ugly ones, above the needs of another.

4.     If It’s Square, It’s a Sonnet

5.     Now, Where Have I Seen Her Before?

a.     There is no such thing as a wholly original work of literature—stories grow out of other stories, poems out of other poems.

b.     There is only one story—of humanity and human nature, endlessly repeated

c.     “Intertexuality”—recognizing the connections between one story and another deepens our appreciation and experience, brings multiple layers of meaning to the text, which we may not be conscious of. The more consciously aware we are, the more alive the text becomes to us.

d.     If you don’t recognize the correspondences, it’s ok. If a story is no good, being based on Hamlet won’t save it.

6.     When in Doubt, It’s from Shakespeare…

a.     Writers use what is common in a culture as a kind of shorthand. Shakespeare is pervasive, so he is frequently echoed.

b.     See plays as a pattern, either in plot or theme or both. Examples:

                                      i.     Hamlet: heroic character, revenge, indecision, melancholy nature

                                    ii.     Henry IV—a young man who must grow up to become king, take on his responsibilities

                                   iii.     Othello—jealousy

                                   iv.     Merchant of Venice—justice vs. mercy

                                    v.     King Lear—aging parent, greedy children, a wise fool

7.     …Or the Bible

a.     Before the mid 20^th century, writers could count on people being very familiar with Biblical stories, a common touchstone a writer can tap

b.     Common Biblical stories with symbolic implications

                                      i.     Garden of Eden: women tempting men and causing their fall, the apple as symbolic of an object of temptation, a serpent who tempts men to do evil, and a fall from innocence

                                    ii.     David and Goliath—overcoming overwhelming odds

                                   iii.     Jonah and the Whale—refusing to face a task and being “eaten” or overwhelmed by it anyway.

                                   iv.     Job: facing disasters not of the character’s making and not the character’s fault, suffers as a result, but remains steadfast

                                    v.     The Flood: rain as a form of destruction; rainbow as a promise of restoration

                                   vi.     Christ figures (a later chapter): in 20^th century, often used ironically

                                 vii.     The Apocalypse—Four Horseman of the Apocalypse usher in the end of the world.

                                viii.     Biblical names often draw a connection between literary character and Biblical charcter.

8.     Hanseldee and Greteldum–using fairy tales and kid lit

a.     Hansel and Gretel: lost children trying to find their way home

b.     Peter Pan: refusing to grow up, lost boys, a girl-nurturer/

c.     Little Red Riding Hood: See Vampires

d.     Alice in Wonderland, The Wizard of Oz: entering a world that doesn’t work rationally or operates under different rules, the Red Queen, the White Rabbit, the Cheshire Cat, the Wicked Witch of the West, the Wizard, who is a fraud

e.     Cinderella: orphaned girl abused by adopted family saved through supernatural intervention and by marrying a prince

f.      Snow White: Evil woman who brings death to an innocent—again, saved by heroic/princely character

g.     Sleeping Beauty: a girl becoming a woman, symbolically, the needle, blood=womanhood, the long sleep an avoidance of growing up and becoming a married woman, saved by, guess who, a prince who fights evil on her behalf.

h.     Evil Stepmothers, Queens, Rumpelstilskin

i.      Prince Charming heroes who rescue women. (20^th c. frequently switched—the women save the men—or used highly ironically)

9.     It’s Greek to Me

a.     Myth is a body of story that matters—the patterns present in mythology run deeply in the human psyche

b.     Why writers echo myth—because there’s only one story (see #4)

c.     Odyssey and Iliad

                                      i.     Men in an epic struggle over a woman

                                    ii.     Achilles—a small weakness in a strong man; the need to maintain one’s dignity

                                   iii.     Penelope (Odysseus’s wife)—the determination to remain faithful and to have faith

                                   iv.     Hector: The need to protect one’s family

d.     The Underworld—an ultimate challenge, facing the darkest parts of human nature or dealing with death

e.     Metamorphoses by Ovid—transformation (Kafka)

f.      Oedipus: family triangles, being blinded, dysfunctional family

g.     Cassandra: refusing to hear the truth

h.     A wronged woman gone violent in her grief and madness—Aeneas and Dido or Jason and Medea

i.      Mother love—Demeter and Persephone

10.  It’s more than just rain or snow

a.     Rain

                                      i.     fertility and life

                                    ii.     Noah and the flood

                                   iii.     Drowning—one of our deepest fears

b.     Why?

                                      i.     plot device

                                    ii.     atmospherics

                                   iii.     misery factor—challenge characters

                                   iv.     democratic element—the rain falls on the just and the unjust alike

c.     Symbolically

                                      i.     rain is clean—a form of purification, baptism, removing sin or a stain

                                    ii.     rain is restorative—can bring a dying earth back to life

                                   iii.     destructive as well—causes pneumonia, colds, etc.; hurricanes, etc.

                                   iv.     Ironic use—April is the cruelest month (T.S. Eliot, The Wasteland)

                                    v.     Rainbow—God’s promise never to destroy the world again; hope; a promise of peace between heaven and earth

                                   vi.     fog—almost always signals some sort of confusion; mental, ethical, physical “fog”; people can’t see clearly

d.     Snow

                                      i.     negatively—cold, stark, inhospitable, inhuman, nothingness, death

                                    ii.     positively—clean, pure, playful

11.  …More Than It’s Gonna Hurt You: Concerning Violence

a.     Violence can be symbolic, thematic, biblical, Shakespearean, Romantic, allegorical, transcendent.

b.     Two categories of violence in literature

                                      i.     Character caused—shootings, stabbings, drownings, poisonings, bombings, hit and run, etc

                                    ii.     Death and suffering for which the characters are not responsible. Accidents are not really accidents.

c.     Violence is symbolic action, but hard to generalize meaning

d.     Questions to ask:

                                      i.     What does this type of misfortune represent thematically?

                                    ii.     What famous or mythic death does this one resemble?

                                   iii.     Why this sort of violence and not some other?

12.  Is That a Symbol?

a.     Yes. But figuring out what is tricky. Can only discuss possible meanings and interpretations

b.     There is no one definite meaning unless it’s an allegory, where characters, events, places have a one-on-one correspondence symbolically to other things. (Animal Farm)

c.     Actions, as well as objects and images, can be symbolic. i.e. “The Road Not Taken” by Robert Frost

d.     How to figure it out? Symbols are built on associations readers have, but also on emotional reactions. Pay attention to how you feel about a text.

13.  It’s All Political

a.     Literature tends to be written by people interested in the problems of the world, so most works have a political element in them

b.     Issues:

                                      i.     Individualism and self-determination against the needs of society for conformity and stability.

                                    ii.     Power structures

                                   iii.     Relations among classes

                                   iv.     issues of justice and rights

                                    v.     interactions between the sexes and among various racial and ethnic constituencies.

14.  Yes, She’s a Christ Figure, Too

a.     Characteristics of a Christ Figure:

                                      i.     crucified, wounds in hands, feet, side, and head, often portrayed with arms outstretched

                                    ii.     in agony

                                   iii.     self-sacrificing

                                   iv.     good with children

                                    v.     good with loaves, fishes, water, wine

                                   vi.     thirty-three years of age when last seen

                                 vii.     employed as a carpenter

                                viii.     known to use humble modes of transportation, feet or donkeys preferred

                                   ix.     believed to have walked on water

                                     x.     known to have spent time alone in the wilderness

                                   xi.     believed to have had a confrontation with the devil, possibly tempted

                                  xii.     last seen in the company of thieves

                                xiii.     creator of many aphorisms and parables

                                xiv.     buried, but arose on the third day

                                  xv.     had disciples, twelve at first, although not all equally devoted

                                xvi.     very forgiving

                               xvii.     came to redeem an unworthy world

b.     As a reader, put aside belief system.

c.     Why use Christ figures? Deepens our sense of a character’s sacrifice, thematically has to do with redemption, hope, or miracles.

d.     If used ironically, makes the character look smaller rather than greater

15.  Flights of Fancy

a.     Daedalus and Icarus

b.     Flying was one of the temptations of Christ

c.     Symbolically: freedom, escape, the flight of the imagination, spirituality, return home, largeness of spirit, love

d.     Interrupted flight generally a bad thing

e.     Usually not literal flying, but might use images of flying, birds, etc.

f.      Irony trumps everything

16.  It’s All About Sex…

a.     Female symbols: chalice, Holy Grail,  bowls, rolling landscape, empty vessels waiting to be filled, tunnels, images of fertility

b.     Male symbols: blade, tall buildings

c.     Why?

                                      i.     Before mid 20^th c., coded sex avoided censorship

                                    ii.     Can function on multiple levels

                                   iii.     Can be more intense than literal descriptions

17.  …Except Sex. When authors write directly about sex, they’re writing about something else, such as sacrifice, submission, rebellion, supplication, domination, enlightenment, etc.

18.  If She Comes Up, It’s Baptism

a.     Baptism is symbolic death and rebirth as a new individual

b.     Drowning is symbolic baptism, IF the character comes back up, symbolically reborn. But drowning on purpose can also represent a form of rebirth, a choosing to enter a new, different life, leaving an old one behind.

c.     Traveling on water—rivers, oceans—can symbolically represent baptism. i.e. young man sails away from a known world, dies out of one existence, and comes back a new person, hence reborn. Rivers can also represent the River Styx, the mythological river separating the world from the Underworld, another form of transformation, passing from life into death.

d.     Rain can by symbolic baptism as well—cleanses, washes

e.     Sometimes the water is symbolic too—the prairie has been compared to an ocean, walking in a blizzard across snow like walking on water, crossing a river from one existence to another (Beloved)

f.      There’s also rebirth/baptism implied when a character is renamed.

19.  Geography Matters…

a.     What represents home, family, love, security?

b.     What represents wilderness, danger, confusion? i.e. tunnels, labyrinths, jungles

c.     Geography can represent the human psyche (Heart of Darkness)

d.     Going south=running amok and running amok means having a direct, raw encounter with the subconscious.

e.     Low places: swamps, crowds, fog, darkness, fields, heat, unpleasantness, people, life, death

f.      High places: snow, ice, purity, thin air, clear views, isolation, life, death

20.  …So Does Season

a.     Spring, Summer, Fall, Winter=youth, adulthood, middle age, old age/death.

b.     Spring=fertility, life, happiness, growth, resurrection (Easter)

c.     Fall=harvest, reaping what we sow, both rewards and punishments

d.     Winter=hibernation, lack of growth, death, punishment

e.     Christmas=childhood, birth, hope, family

f.      Irony trumps all “April is the cruelest month” from The Wasteland

21.  Marked for Greatness

a.     Physical marks or imperfections symbolically mirror moral, emotional, or psychological scars or imperfections.

b.     Landscapes can be marked as well—The Wasteland by T.S. Eliot

c.     Physical imperfection, when caused by social imperfection, often reflects not only the damage inside the individual, but what is wrong with the culture that causes such damage

d.     Monsters

                                      i.     Frankenstein—monsters created through no fault of their own; the real monster is the maker

                                    ii.     Faust—bargains with the devil in exchange for one’s soul

                                   iii.     Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde—the dual nature of humanity, that in each of us, no matter how well-made or socially groomed, a monstrous Other exists.

                                   iv.     Quasimodo, Beauty and the Beast—ugly on the outside, beautiful on the inside. The physical deformity reflects the opposite of the truth.

22.  He’s Blind for a Reason, You Know

a.     Physical blindness mirrors psychological, moral, intellectual (etc.) blindness

b.     Sometimes ironic; the blind see and sighted are blind

c.     Many times blindness is metaphorical, a failure to see—reality, love, truth, etc.

d.     darkness=blindness; light=sight

23.  It’s Never Just Heart Disease…

a.     Heart disease=bad love, loneliness, cruelty, disloyalty, cowardice, lack of determination.

b.     Socially, something on a larger scale or something seriously amiss at the heart of things (Heart of Darkness)

24.  …And Rarely Just Illness

a.     Not all illnesses are created equal. Tuberculosis occurs frequently; cholera does not because of the reasons below

b.     It should be picturesque

c.     It should be mysterious in origin

d.     It should have strong symbolic or metaphorical possibilities

                                      i.     Tuberculosis—a wasting disease

                                    ii.     Physical paralysis can mirror moral, social, spiritual, intellectual, political paralysis

                                   iii.     Plague: divine wrath; the communal aspect and philosophical possibilities of suffering on a large scale; the isolation an despair created by wholesale destruction; the puniness of humanity in the face of an indifferent natural world

                                   iv.     Malaria: means literally “bad air” with the attendant metaphorical possibilities.

                                    v.     Venereal disease: reflects immorality OR innocence, when the innocent suffer because of another’s immorality; passed on to a spouse or baby, men’s exploitation of women

                                   vi.     AIDS: the modern plague. Tendency to lie dormant for years, victims unknowing carriers of death, disproportionately hits young people, poor, etc. An opportunity to show courage and resilience and compassion (or lack of); political and religious angles

                                 vii.     The generic fever that carries off a child

25.  Don’t Read with Your Eyes

a.     You must enter the reality of the book; don’t read from your own fixed position in 2005. Find a reading perspective that allows for sympathy with the historical movement of the story, that understands the text as having been written against its own social, historical, cultural, and personal background.

b.     We don’t have to accept the values of another culture to sympathetically step into a story and recognize the universal qualities present there.

26.  Is He Serious? And Other Ironies

a.     Irony trumps everything. Look for it.

b.     Example: Waiting for Godot—journeys, quests, self-knowledge turned on its head. Two men by the side of a road they never take and which never brings anything interesting their way.

c.     Irony doesn’t work for everyone. Difficult to warm to, hard for some to recognize which causes all sorts of problems. Satanic Verses

27.  Test Case: A Reading of “The Garden Party” by Katherine Mansfield

Works referenced in How to Read Literature Like a Professor

About the Work

A Brief Synopsis

Beowulf is the longest and greatest surviving Anglo-Saxon poem. The setting of the epic is the sixth century in what is now known as Denmark and southwestern Sweden. The poem opens with a brief genealogy of the Scylding (Dane) royal dynasty, named after a mythic hero, Scyld Scefing, who reached the tribe’s shores as a castaway babe on a ship loaded with treasure. Scyld’s funeral is a memorable early ritual in the work, but focus soon shifts to the reign of his great-grandson, Hrothgar, whose successful rule is symbolized by a magnificent central mead-hall called Heorot. For 12 years, a huge man-like ogre named Grendel, a descendant of the biblical murderer Cain, has menaced the aging Hrothgar, raiding Heorot and killing the king’s thanes (warriors). Grendel rules the mead-hall nightly.

Beowulf, a young warrior in Geatland (southwestern Sweden), comes to the Scyldings’ aid, bringing with him 14 of his finest men. Hrothgar once sheltered Beowulf’s father during a deadly feud, and the mighty Geat hopes to return the favor while enhancing his own reputation and gaining treasure for his king, Hygelac. At a feast before nightfall of the first day of the visit, an obnoxious, drunken Scylding named Unferth insults Beowulf and claims that the Geat visitor once embarrassingly lost a swimming contest to a boyhood acquaintance named Breca and is no match for Grendel. Beowulf responds with dignity while putting Unferth in his place. In fact, the two swimmers were separated by a storm on the fifth night of the contest, and Beowulf had slain nine sea monsters before finally returning to shore.

While the Danes retire to safer sleeping quarters, Beowulf and the Geats bed down in Heorot, fully aware that Grendel will visit them. He does. Angered by the joy of the men in the mead-hall, the ogre furiously bursts in on the Geats, killing one and then reaching for Beowulf. With the strength of 30 men in his hand-grip, Beowulf seizes the ogre’s claw and does not let go. The ensuing battle nearly destroys the great hall, but Beowulf emerges victorious as he rips Grendel’s claw from its shoulder socket, sending the mortally wounded beast fleeing to his mere (pool). The claw trophy hangs high under the roof of Heorot.

The Danes celebrate the next day with a huge feast featuring entertainment by Hrothgar’s scop (pronounced “shop”), a professional bard who accompanies himself on a harp and sings or chants traditional lays such as an account of the Danes’ victory at Finnsburh. This bard also improvises a song about Beowulf’s victory. Hrothgar’s wife, Queen Wealhtheow, proves to be a perfect hostess, offering Beowulf a gold collar and her gratitude. Filled with mead, wine, and great food, the entire party retires for what they expect to be the first peaceful night in years.

But Grendel’s mother—not quite as powerful as her son but highly motivated—climbs to Heorot that night, retrieves her son’s claw, and murderously abducts one of the Scyldings (Aeschere) while Beowulf sleeps elsewhere. The next morning, Hrothgar, Beowulf, and a retinue of Scyldings and Geats follow the mother’s tracks into a dark, forbidding swamp and to the edge of her mere. The slaughtered Aeschere’s head sits on a cliff by the lake, which hides the ogres’ underground cave. Carrying a sword called Hrunting, a gift from the chastised Unferth, Beowulf dives into the mere to seek the mother.

Near the bottom of the lake, Grendel’s mother attacks and hauls the Geat warrior to her dimly lit cave. Beowulf fights back once inside the dry cavern, but the gift sword, Hrunting, strong as it is, fails to penetrate the ogre’s hide. The mother moves to kill Beowulf with her knife, but his armor, made by the legendary blacksmith Weland, protects him. Suddenly Beowulf spots a magical, giant sword and uses it to cut through the mother’s spine at the neck, killing her. A blessed light unexplainably illuminates the cavern, disclosing Grendel’s corpse and a great deal of treasure. Beowulf decapitates the corpse. The magic sword melts to its hilt. Beowulf returns to the lake’s surface carrying the head and hilt but leaving the treasure.

After more celebration and gifts and a sermon by Hrothgar warning of the dangers of pride and the mutability of time, Beowulf and his men return to Geatland. There he serves his king well until Hygelac is killed in battle and his son dies in a feud. Beowulf is then named king and rules successfully for 50 years. Like Hrothgar, however, his peace is shattered in his declining years. Beowulf must battle one more demon.

A fiery dragon has become enraged because a lone fugitive has inadvertently discovered the dragon’s treasure-trove and stolen a valuable cup. The dragon terrorizes the countryside at night, burning several homes, including Beowulf’s. Led by the fugitive, Beowulf and eleven of his men seek out the dragon’s barrow. Beowulf insists on taking on the dragon alone, but his own sword, Naegling, is no match for the monster. Seeing his king in trouble, one thane, Wiglaf, goes to his assistance. The others flee to the woods. Together, Wiglaf and Beowulf kill the dragon, but the mighty king is mortally wounded. Dying, Beowulf leaves his kingdom to Wiglaf and requests that his body be cremated in a funeral pyre and buried high on a seaside cliff where passing sailors might see the barrow. The dragon’s treasure-hoard is buried with him. It is said that they lie there still.

Beowulf – from Spark Notes

full title  · Beowulf

author  · Unknown

        type of work  · Poem

genre  · Alliterative verse; elegy; resembles heroic epic, though smaller in scope than most classical epics

language  · Anglo-Saxon (also called Old English)

time and place written  · Estimates of the date of composition range between 700 and 1000 a.d.; written in England

date of first publication  · The only manuscript in which Beowulf is preserved is thought to have been written around 1000 a.d.

publisher  · The original poem exists only in manuscript form.

narrator  · A Christian narrator telling a story of pagan times

point of view  · The narrator recounts the story in the third person, from a generally objective standpoint—detailing the action that occurs. The narrator does, however, have access to every character’s depths. We see into the minds of most of the characters (even Grendel) at one point or another, and the narrative also moves forward and backward in time with considerable freedom.

tone  · The poet is generally enthusiastic about Beowulf’s feats, but he often surrounds the events he narrates with a sense of doom.

tense  · Past, but with digressions into the distant past and predictions of the future

setting (time)  · The main action of the story is set around 500 a.d.; the narrative also recounts historical events that happened much earlier.

setting (place)  · Denmark and Geatland (a region in what is now southern Sweden)

protagonist  · Beowulf

major conflict  · The poem essentially consists of three parts. There are three central conflicts: Grendel’s domination of Heorot Hall; the vengeance of Grendel’s mother after Grendel is slain; and the rage of the dragon after a thief steals a treasure that it has been guarding. The poem’s overarching conflict is between close-knit warrior societies and the various menaces that threaten their boundaries.

rising action  · Grendel’s attack on Heorot, Beowulf’s defeat of Grendel, and Grendel’s mother’s vengeful killing of Aeschere lead to the climactic encounter between Beowulf and Grendel’s mother.

climax  · Beowulf’s encounter with Grendel’s mother constitutes the moment at which good and evil are in greatest tension.

falling action  · Beowulf’s glorious victory over Grendel’s mother leads King Hrothgar to praise him as a worthy hero and to advise him about becoming king. It also helps Beowulf to transform from a brazen warrior into a reliable king.

themes  · The importance of establishing identity; tensions between the heroic code and other value systems; the difference between a good warrior and a good king

motifs  · Monsters; the oral tradition; the mead-hall

symbols  · The golden torque; the banquet

foreshadowing  · The funeral of Shield Sheafson, with which the poem opens, foreshadows Beowulf’s funeral at the poem’s end; the story of Sigemund told by the scop, or bard, foreshadows Beowulf’s fight with the dragon; the story of King Heremod foreshadows Beowulf’s eventual ascendancy to kingship.

SHORT STORY ANALYSIS – Worksheet

TITLE OF STORY:______________________________________________________

AUTHOR OF STORY:____________________________________________________

I.  THEME—The central idea that the author wishes to set forth in his or her writing.

To find the theme, ask yourself these questions:

1.     What is the story about?

2.     What is the central idea?

3.    What observation did the author make about human nature?

II.  PLOT—A series of related events that the author uses to develop the theme of a story.         To identify the plot, ask yourself these questions:

1.     What happens in the beginning of the story?

2.     What happens in the middle of the story?

3.      What happens at the end of the story?

III. CHARACTER—The action of the story is centered around the characters in the story.  One central character usually dominates the story.

1.    Describe the most important character in the story.

2.  Describe at least two other characters in the story.

IV. SETTING—The stage upon which the action of the story takes place.  The setting is to a story just as the background is to a painting.

1.    Describe the setting of the story.  Where does the story take place?

2.    In what year and time of year does the story take place?

3.  What is the mood in the story?

V.  POINT OF VIEW—The author’s choice of the teller of the story.  The point of view is important to the total structure and meaning of the short story.

1.    Who is telling the story?

2.  Why do you think the author made this choice?

ELEMENTS OF SHORT STORIES

What is a Short Story?

A short story is a relatively brief fictional narrative or story written without using any rhymes of rhythms.  The short story has a beginning, a middle, and an end and is composed of the following elements:

·      Theme

·      Plot

·      Character

·      Setting

·      Point of View

I.  THEME—The central idea that the author wishes to set forth in his or her writing.

To find the theme, ask yourself these questions:

1.    What is the story about?

2.    What is the central idea?

3.    What observation did the author make about human nature?

II.  PLOT—A series of related events that the author uses to develop the theme of a story.        

         To identify the plot, ask yourself these questions:

1.    What happens in the beginning of the story?

2.    What happens in the middle of the story?

3.    What happens at the end of the story?

III. CHARACTER—The action of the story is centered around the characters in the story.  One central character usually dominates the story.

IV. SETTING—The stage upon which the action of the story takes place.  The setting is to a story just as the background is to a painting.

V.  POINT OF VIEW—The author’s choice of the teller of the story.  The point of view is important to the total structure and meaning of the short story.  To find the point of view, ask yourself who is telling the story.

LITERARY TECHNIQUES USED TO DEVELOP THEME:

Foreshadowing—giving hints to the reader about what is to happen next

Flashback—the author interrupts the story to go back in time to add scenes or information.  This helps the reader understand what is happening in the present.

Irony—the opposite of what is expected to happen.  Either a statement may have an opposite meaning, or an outcome of events may be the opposite of those hoped for or expected.

Tone—the “feeling” conveyed by the way the writer writes about his subject.

Realism—the author attempts to portray life in his/her novel realistically.  He/she must use details to reflect the reality that we see around us.

Romanticism—the author uses his imagination to present the world to us.  At times his/her view may be extremely idealistic; at other times it may reflect extreme horror.

STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT:

EXPOSITION is the beginning stage

·      the reader is given the setting of the story

·      the reader is introduced to the principal characters and their relationships to each other

·      the reader is given information about the events that existed before the story’s start

·      the reader is also given some information about the conflict in the story

·      the exposition sets the groundwork for the story

CONFLICT is the struggle between opposing forces.

Types of conflict:

         Man vs. man—external struggle between two or more individuals

         Man vs. himself—internal struggle concerning emotion and decision

         Man vs. nature—external struggle between man and an element of nature

         Man vs. machine–external struggle between man and a man-made and never-                                             lived element

                  COMPLICATION is mini-conflicts that contribute to the rise in action.       

·      each mini-conflict must be more intense than the other until the most dramatic conflict occurs

·      this dramatic conflict (or climax) will hint to either the success or failure of the principal character’s ability to win his struggle or to simply solve his problem.

CLIMAX is the turning point in the story, or the emotional high point

·      this turning point is for the character, not the reader

FALLING ACTION is the events that lead to the resolution

RESOLUTION (denouement) is the final stage

·      the outcome of the conflict or the resolution of the problem.

·      the outcome of the resolution will express the general theme of the story.

·      all characters should be believable—have recognizable human traits and characteristics

FOUR TYPES OF CHARACTERIZATION—techniques the writer uses to develop character

1.    What the author states

a.     Physical description

2.    What the characters say or do

3.    How the characters dress

a.  The characters’ speech and dress play significant factors in the                  development of their characterizations

4.    What other characters say

5.    Other

Types of characters:

1.    protagonist—the central character—he or she can be good or bad

2.    antagonist—the “opposing” character(s)

3.    flat—characters who do NOT change in a story.

4.    round—characters who change

Analysis of characters:

1.    motivation—what motivates the character to cause his/her actions?

2.    behavior—what are the actions of the character and why is he/she behaving this way?

3.    consequences—what are the results of his/her actions?

4.    responsibility—what moral, legal, or mental accountability does the character have?

5.    expectations—what expectations do you have for this character?

The setting determines the place, time, tone, and atmosphere

1.     tone—the author’s attitude toward his/her material

2.     atmosphere—the general feeling or mood set by the author

The author must choose items of description that are important not only because of their visual representation, but also in terms of their importance to the effectiveness of the story.

TECHNIQUES FOR ESTABLISHING SETTING:

1.     Sensory details—words that appeal to the senses (sight/hearing/taste/touch/smell)

2.     Figurative language:

a.     simile—comparison using like or as

b.    metaphor—comparison using is or form of is

i.               implied metaphor

ii.             extended metaphor

3.     personification

TYPES OF POINT OF VIEW:

1.    first person—the narrator is the main character who tells his own story.  The narrator tells the story speaking with an “I” in his/her own language.

2.    First person observer—the narrator tells the story which he has observed.  The character is usually of secondary importance in the story.  He looks on and simply reports what the more important characters say.

3.    Third person—the author is outside the story using “he” or “she”

a.    Author-Observer—allows the author to tell the story using the third person.  He remains outside the minds of the characters.  He records only what any observer in the same situation might also see.

b.    Omniscient author—may tell what happens with the power to go into the minds of characters and also give his own comments.  He/she is “all-knowing.”

Identifying point-of-view:

When the narrator is a character in the story ask:

1.    Does the main character tell his own story? (first person narrator)

2.    Does a minor character tell the main character’s story?  (first person observer

When the narrator is not a character in the story ask:

1.    Does the author tell what people think and explain feelings and motives? (omniscient author)

2.    Does the author simply tell the story without giving the thoughts and feelings of the characters? (author observer)

POSITION PAPER /ORAL PRESENTATION

(Read on 11-24-08 and handed out on 11-25-08)

In order to complete this assignment, you will be required to do independent research on the topic/issue you choose. Virtually all of the available topics are already being fully debated and reported in national and local newspapers, periodicals, and on television. For this particular assignment, I am insisting that 80% of your sources be drawn from print media. Only 20% may come from the Internet or other sources. All sources used (a minimum of five) should be listed separately (source, date, author, etc.) and attached to your paper in MLA bibliographic format on which you will be provided guidelines and instruction. When conducting your research, be sure to pay close attention to the validity and reliability of the information provided in the sources reviewed.

You are expected to give thoughtful consideration to the various points and arguments raised in the articles that you review on your topic prior to reaching a conclusion of your own on the issue. Your opinion should not be based upon biases, prejudices, or emotional arguments; it should contain a reasonable conclusion(s) that is based upon reliable facts that have been assessed in a logical manner.  Please note that there are no “wrong” or “right” opinions; many experts have differences of opinion on all of the issues we have discussed in class. In fact, you are encouraged to suggest a creative solution related to your issue. Your conclusion, however, should be convincingly conveyed in both your written and oral presentations.

Expectations and guidelines related to your oral presentation will be discussed further at a later date. Please use the following format for your written paper:

·   minimum of 2 typed, or 4 handwritten pages

·   double-spacing (i.e., a space between each line on your page)

·   12 point font

·   minimum of 6 paragraphs that includes:

            a)  a statement of the issue in controversy

        b)  your opinion or position on the matter

     c)  facts and arguments that support your opinion    

     d)  facts and arguments countering opposing positions, if appropriate

            e)  a proposed solution or course of action

In reviewing the print media sources that you select, I strongly urge you to use the following procedure:

1) Scan each article to get an overview of the author’s general position

2) Read the same article in detail from start to finish, highlighting any points or arguments you feel are particularly strong or valid

3) Transfer each highlighted point or argument to a separate index card

4) Repeat the process with each successive article

5) Prior to writing your position paper, review your index cards and arrange them in an order that appears logical and supportive of your opinion

6) Write your paper in the form discussed above, referencing the arguments or points in support of your opinion on the matter

Note:   You should paraphrase the material gleaned from these articles. Do not quote any material verbatim without using quotations and crediting the original author. This should be done sparingly, as I expect this paper to be an original work reflecting your own opinion based on an analysis of various arguments related to the issue.

While I do not expect a sophisticated effort from every student on this assignment, I do expect each student to assess the various factors related to his/her issue and to adopt a thoughtful position. Try to keep your sentences short and to the point. Your sentences should be complete, with appropriate punctuation and grammar. If you choose to type your paper, please use the spell check on your word processing program. If writing this paper by hand, you should use a dictionary. Parental assistance with editing, not initial drafting is not only permissible, but encouraged!

You will need to adhere to the following schedule:

Choose Topic (11-25-08): Sign-up on list.  One person per topic.

Declare Position (12-2-08):  Choose the side of the argument you are taking.

Rough Draft Check (12-8-08): All research should be complete. Must have a clear thesis statement and outline of all six of the paragraph topics.

Paper Due (12-12-08):  Keep a second copy for yourself, so that you can use it to plan your oral presentation.  MUST BE TURNED IN ON THIS DATE. 

Oral Presentations (12-15 thru 12-19): Be prepared for any of these dates.  Must have notes on index cards.  Must practice speech and NOT just read your notes.  You are defending your paper.  WE WILL TALK ABOUT THIS IN CLASS BEFORE THE PRESENTATION DATE.

REMEMBER:

·      Two major grades and several minor ones are connected to this assignment.

·      This is a RESEARCHED opinion paper.

·      You must have sources!

·      You must document (MLA) your research.

·      You must defend your paper through an oral presentation.  This grade is EQUAL to the grade on the paper.  SELL IT!!!

I have read the above assignment and I am aware of the due dates and requirements.

___________________________________         _________________

Student Signature                                     Date

__________________________________       __________________

Parent Signature                                    Date

THIS SHEET MUST BE TURNED IN WITH YOUR POSITION PAPER.  THERE WILL BE A 10% REDUCTION ON YOUR PAPER IF IT IS NOT INCLUDED.

L.E.G. Project

Part One:

Read your novel ASAP. Nothing can happen until this is done.

Part Two:

Meet with your group and decide who is doing what on the PowerPoint.

There is no minimum or maximum length, or special order, but the following is required:

Full Title, Author, and Publishing Date

Author Mini Biography (with list of any other works)

Setting (time and place)

Character Descriptions

Plot Summary (beginning, middle, and end)

Literary Elements (ex. tone, theme, conflict, point-of-view, symbolism)

Quotes from Text

Critical Analysis of Book by Group (How did you like it and what did you get out of it?)

References (if any)

Job Division slide

Creativity (pictures, appropriate clips, etc) is encouraged. This is your project.

****BURN A COPY OF THE POWERPOINT AND TURN IN ON PRESENTATION DAY****

Due date (ALL PREPARED)_______________

Part Three:

Individual Book Test will be on _______________(you have to read the book).

Part Four:

AFTER watching the movie you will write a five-paragraph essay comparing your character in the book to the one in the film.

THIS IS A MAJOR GRADE – DO NOT IGNORE THE ASSIGNMENT

PAGES MAY BE USED ON YOUR QRA ( PER THE GRADE ON THE TEST) AND DO NOT NEED AN ADDITIONAL PROJECT

COLLEGE VOCABULARY LIST

1. squalid: sordid; dirty; marked by filthiness.

2. proliferating: multiplying; rapidly increasing in numbers.

3. sanctuary: a refuge; a place for worship.

4. elude: evade; cleverly avoid.

5. ultimate: final; farthest; most remote in space or time.

6. inscrutable: obscure; not capable of being understood.

7. spiel: an extravagant talk; an oration.

8. servitude: slavery; punishment for a crime; subjection.

9. spellbind: fascinate; enchant; to hold one’s attention as by a spell.

10. proletariat: common people, working class.

11. delusion: a deception; a false idea or opinion.

12. purge: to cleanse; to purify; to free from impurities.

13. secular: worldly; not sacred or religious.

14. viable: practical; able to live or to be implemented.

15. anathema: a curse; a vigorous denunciation.

16. jeopardy: danger; peril; vulnerability.

17. reflective: thoughtful; pensive; contemplative.

18. benign: gentle; showing kindness of disposisiton.

19. pugnacious: belligerent; combative; obnoxious.

20. dissipate: scatter; vanish; to waste, as in money.

21. acquiesce: assent; to accept passively or reluctantly.

22. denigrate: defame; belittle; criticize unkindly.

23. munificent: lavishly generous; liberal in giving.

24. capitulation: surrender; giving up resistance.

25. palatable: edible; pleasant tasting; to one’s taste.

26. vehement: forcibly expressed; impassioned; fervid.

27. fruition: accomplishment; realization.

28. eradicate: exterminate; do away with completely.

29. despotic: tyrannical: dictatorial.

30. extricate: to free; remove from entanglement.

31. paranoia: irrational distrust; feeling of persecution.

32. malevolence: malice; hatred toward others; intention to harm.

33. tenuous: insubstantial; flimsy; weak.

34. ambivalence: uncertainty in attitude; fluctuation.

35. desiccate: dry up; dehydrate; to drain vitality.

36. replete: complete; full; abundantly filled.

37. recalcitrant: resistant; defiant of authority.

38. cogent: convincing; valid; forcibly appealing to the mind.

39. affluence: profusion; overflowing of wealth, etc.; an abundance.

40. astute: clever; shrewd; intellectually observant.

41. fatuous: foolish; silly; simple-minded; not intellectual.

42. vindictive: revengeful; spiteful; wanting to hurt or harm.

43. meticulous: giving great attention to details ; mindful of details.

44. catharsis: purification; purgation; cleansing of emotions.

45. insatiable: quenchless; incapable of being satisfied.

46. dubious: doubtful; uncertain in belief or knowledge.

47. tepid: lukewarm; lacking definite warmth; moderate warmth.

48. perpetual: everlasting; continuing forever.

49. skepticism: doubt; uncertainty in belief or knowledge.

50. vestige: remnant; that which is left.

Any form (part of speech) of the vocabulary word may used if appropriate for the sentence.

51. clandestine: secretive; held or conducted secretly.

52. expatriate: banished person; one driven into exile.

53. converge: meet; to move toward one another.

54. implicit: understood without explanation; tacitly understood; implied

55. manifest: obvious; readily perceived by the senses.

56. lexicon: dictionary; book containing words and definitions.

57. felicity: great happiness; state of being happy.

58. accentuate: emphasize; to accent something.

59. ephemeral: fleeting; transient; lasting only a short time.

60. eccentric: odd; strange; deviating from the pattern.

61. symbiosis: mutuality; beneficial union or association.

62. debacle: great disaster; fiasco; a tumultuous breakup.

63. delusive: deceptive; likely to deceive or trick.

64. exigencies: urgent needs; emergencies.

65. pernicious: wicked; deadly; highly injurious or destructive.

66. ostracism: exclusion; banishment; social exclusion.

67. ameliorate: improve; to make better or more tolerable.

68. tutelage: instruction; a guiding influence.

69. morose: expressive of gloom; sullen; unsociable.

70. ancillary: subsidiary; auxiliary; subordinate.

71. plethora: excess; superfluity; an overabundance.

72. vivifying: enlivening; quickening; renewing of life.

73. aesthetic: artistic; relating to or dealing with beauty; appealing to the eye.

74. disparate: different; markedly distinct in some way.

75. pedagogues: pompous teachers; schoolmasters.

76. salutary: curative; promoting good health.

77. relegated: assigned; classified; banished.

78. nuance: subtle distinction or difference; subtle variation.

79. precarious: dangerous; unsafe; hazardous.

80. metamorphosis: change in form; alteration of appearance.

81. congruent: equal; harmonious; agreeable; in tangent.

82. essences: prime characteristics; basic qualities.

83. syntax: word order; arrangement of parts of sentences.

84. unimpeachable: irreproachable; not liable to accusation; above reproach.

85. generic: general; common; characteristic of a whole group.

86. tandem: twosome; an arrangement by two.

87. rapport: harmony; relation marked by accord.

88. effete: decadent; effeminate; marked by weakness.

89. austerity: extreme economy; an ascetic practice.

90. presumptuous: audacious; tending to be overly bold.

91. voracious: gluttonous; extremely greedy; insatiable.

92. invidious: hostile; offensive; rousing ill will.

93. impermeable: impervious; not permitting passage.

94. aphorism: proverb; a terse formulation of a truth.

95. malaise: a sick feeling; a sense of mental or moral ill being.

96. histrionic: dramatic; theatrical; relating to the theater.

97. gingerly: cautiously; carefully; proceeding with caution.

98. decadence: deterioration; a period of decline.

99. drone: parasite; one who lives from the effects/good will of others.

100. calibrate: to determine; to measure; to standardize.

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (from SparksNotes)

Key Facts

full title  · Sir Gawain and the Green Knight

author  · Anonymous; referred to as the Gawain-poet or the Pearl-poet

type of work  · Alliterative poem

genre  · Romance, Arthurian legend

language  · Middle English (translated into modern English)

time and place written  · Ca. 1340–1400, West Midlands, England

publisher  · The original work circulated for an unknown length of time in manuscript format. Many different modern English and original-language editions exist.

narrator  · Third person omniscient

point of view  · The Gawain-poet tells the story mainly from Gawain’s point of view. However, he also occasionally narrates moments that happen outside the scope of Gawain’s direct experience, most notably the host’s daily hunts.

tone  · The narrator’s tone toward Gawain’s story hovers between straightforward praise and irony-tinged ambivalence. He occasionally refuses to give a straightforward account of characters’ motives, leaving it ambiguous whether he approves or disapproves of the codes of courtly behavior and ethics that he describes. At times his tone can be nostalgic for the mythical past, but at other times he verges on criticizing a former age that is neither innocent nor pure. He often achieves this level of ambiguity through the use of signs and symbols with undefined meanings.

tense  · Past; some commentaries on the action in the present tense

setting (time)  · The mythical past of King Arthur’s court (sometime after Rome’s fall, but before recorded history)

settings (place)  · Camelot; the wilderness; Bertilak’s castle; the Green Chapel

protagonist  · Sir Gawain

major conflict  · The major conflict is largely Gawain’s struggle to decide whether his knightly virtues are more important than his life. Before he knows that the Green Knight has supernatural abilities, Gawain accepts the Green Knight’s challenge to an exchange of blows. Once the Green Knight survives the blow, Gawain has a year and a day before he must seek out the Green Knight to receive the return blow, which will almost surely mean his own death. Once he has found the castle of a host who promises to show him the way to the Green Chapel, he struggles to protect and maintain his knightly virtues while remaining courteous to his host’s wife, and he struggles to keep his pacts with the Green Knight and his host, despite his fear of death.

rising action  · Gawain accepts the Green Knight’s covenant and chops off the Green Knight’s head, but he survives the blow. Two months before he is due to meet the knight for his own decapitation, Gawain sets out through the wilderness in search of the Green Chapel. He happens upon a castle, where he stays until he must leave for his challenge. At the castle, Gawain’s courtesy, chastity, and honesty are all tempted. Gawain then journeys to confront the Green Knight at the Green Chapel.

climax  · Gawain encounters the Green Knight at the Green Chapel. After feinting with his axe twice, the Green Knight strikes Gawain on the third swing, but only nicks his neck.

falling action  · The Green Knight explains all the mysteries of the story. He and Gawain’s host at the castle are the same man, named Bertilak. Morgan le Faye, the old woman at the castle, is actually behind all the events of the story. Gawain admits his breach of contract in having kept the green girdle and promises to wear the girdle as a banner of his weakness.

themes  · The nature of chivalry; the letter of the law

motifs  · The seasons; games

symbols  · The pentangle; the green girdle

foreshadowing  · The Green Knight’s reiteration of Gawain’s promise as he leaves Camelot foreshadows Gawain’s eventual encounter with the knight. The description of the changing seasons at the beginning of Part 2 foreshadows Gawain’s emotional development in the following parts. The strange, hallucinatory appearance of Bertilak’s castle foreshadows the untrustworthy nature of its inhabitants. The lady’s offer of a green girdle foreshadows Gawain’s ability to cheat death.

Character List

Sir Gawain -  The story’s protagonist, Arthur’s nephew and one of his most loyal knights. Although he modestly disclaims it, Gawain has the reputation of being a great knight and courtly lover. He prides himself on his observance of the five points of chivalry in every aspect of his life. Gawain is a pinnacle of humility, piety, integrity, loyalty, and honesty. His only flaw proves to be that he loves his own life so much that he will lie in order to protect himself. Gawain leaves the Green Chapel penitent and changed.

Green Knight -  A mysterious visitor to Camelot. The Green Knight’s huge stature, wild appearance, and green complexion set him apart from the beardless knights and beautiful ladies of Arthur’s Camelot. He is an ambiguous figure: he says that he comes in friendship, not wanting to fight, but the friendly game he proposes is quite deadly. He attaches great importance to verbal contracts, expecting Sir Gawain to go to great lengths to hold up his end of their bargain. The Green Knight shows himself to be a supernatural being when he picks up his own severed head and rides out of Arthur’s court, still speaking. At the same time, he seems to symbolize the natural world, in that he is killed and reborn as part of a cycle. At the poem’s end, we discover that the Green Knight is also Bertilak, Gawain’s host, and one of Morgan le Faye’s minions.

Bertilak of Hautdesert -  The sturdy, good-natured lord of the castle where Gawain spends Christmas. We only learn Bertilak’s name at the end of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. The poem associates Bertilak with the natural world—his beard resembles a beaver, his face a fire—but also with the courtly behavior of an aristocratic host. Boisterous, powerful, brave, and generous, Lord Bertilak provides an interesting foil to King Arthur. At the end of the poem we learn that Bertilak and the Green Knight are the same person, magically enchanted by Morgan le Faye for her own designs.

Bertilak’s wife -  Bertilak’s wife attempts to seduce Gawain on a daily basis during his stay at the castle. Though the poem presents her to the reader as no more than a beautiful young woman, Bertilak’s wife is an amazingly clever debater and an astute reader of Gawain’s responses as she argues her way through three attempted seductions. Flirtatious and intelligent, Bertilak’s wife ultimately turns out to be another pawn in Morgan le Faye’s plot.

Morgan le Faye  -  The Arthurian tradition typically portrays Morgan as a powerful sorceress, trained by Merlin, as well as the half sister of King Arthur. Not until the last one hundred lines do we discover that the old woman at the castle is Morgan le Faye and that she has controlled the poem’s entire action from beginning to end. As she often does in Arthurian literature, Morgan appears as an enemy of Camelot, one who aims to cause as much trouble for her half brother and his followers as she can.

King Arthur -  The king of Camelot. In Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, Arthur is young and beardless, and his court is in its golden age. Arthur’s refusal to eat until he hears a fantastic tale shows the petulance of youth, as does Arthur’s initial stunned response to the Green Knight’s challenge. However, like a good king, Arthur soon steps forward to take on the challenge. At the story’s end, Arthur joins his nephew in wearing a green girdle on his arm, showing that Gawain’s trial has taught him about his own fallibility.

Queen Guinevere -  Arthur’s wife. The beautiful young Guinevere of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight seems to have little in common with the one of later Arthurian legend. She sits next to Gawain at the New Year’s feast and remains a silent, objectified presence in the midst of the knights of the Round Table.

Gringolet  - Gawain’s horse.